Stonehenge is Britain's most important ancient monument and has been recognised as such throughout history. It's certainly one of the UK's most important tourist destinations and attracts about 900,000 visitors every year (*1) generating about 6.3 million pounds in direct revenue and as much as 22 million pounds in direct economic impact. And ... people have been coming to Stonehenge for a very long time.
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There is some evidence to suggest that it was visited by Romans stationed in the region and the burial of a Saxon man on the site confirms that it was seen as a place of religious importance during both the dark and middle ages. The earliest known written reference appears in 937 AD with regard to a land deed from King Athelstan to Wilton Abbey which refers to 'Stanheyeg' . It next appears seventy years after the Norman invasion. Archdeacon Henry of Huntingdon referred to it at 'Stanenges' and recorded in his book 'Historia Anglorum', "No one can conceive how such great stones have been so raised aloft, or why they were built here". Almost 1,000 years later historians, archaeologists and mathematicians are still working on the same puzzle.
SARSEN STONES WITH LINTELS AT STONEHENGE
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INNER CIRCLE OF TRILITHONS WITH LINTELS
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Thanks to radiocarbon testing and the dedication of many archaeologists the age of the Stonehenge site can be calculated with a fair degree of accuracy. What is often overlooked is that the ancient monument we think of as Stonehenge would have actually been part of a much larger complex of social dwellings and burial cairns known as barrows. In particular these were long-barrows which are very much associated with the original Neolithic people who inhabited the island. Although this is archaeological speculation there is some evidence to suggest that the location was selected as it is one of the highest points in the area and therefore offered good lines-of site in all directions. This would have been of particular importance as most of the surrounding region was comprised of dense forest.
Although there may well have been people living in the region since the decline of the last ice age in 12,500 BC, the story of Stonehenge really begins in approximately 6,000 BC with the flooding of the land-bridge known as Doggerland that linked Britain to Europe. (With a name like that the middleclass Neolithic people of Kent were probably pleased to see it go.) Cut off from the pressure of human migrations from the continent and benefiting from rising temperatures, it is likely that these early settlers were able to establish relatively peaceful and stable social groups. Over the next 2,500 years they multiplied and spread across what is now Britain. By 4,500 BC it appears that a combination of human predation and dense reforestation forced the inhabitants to turn to early farming and animal management. Put another way, the trees had spread faster than the people. Clearing forest was a energy intensive and time consuming exercise making any open area a very valuable asset. It also meant an excess of cut timber which had two meaningful benefits - materials for building and fuel for fires. Areas selected for significant clearance and settlement usually had several factor in common. They were near fresh water, were often on raised ground, started from natural clearings expanding outwards and were on historic trade and social routes. The Stonehenge area is almost central to the source of three key rivers, The Thames, the Avon and the Seven Estuary. This would have placed it at the heart of Neolithic travel. (it is actual only two kilometres from the river Avon near Amesbury). |
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LATE PERIOD NEOLITHIC / BRONZ AGE DIGGER AT STONEHENGE, WILTSHIRE, ENGLAND
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The first significant archaeological site to be constructed in the area is confusingly known as Robin Hood's Ball although it has absolutely nothing to do with the mythical hero outlaw of the 11th century and is a classic case of fairly modern legends being linked to ancient sites. On some maps it was apparently marked as "Robin Hood's Balls" which probably caused even more confusion as well as a lot of merriment. It is estimated that it was built around 4,000 AD.
By 3,700 AD it is fair to assume that the population of the region was expanding fast (more food equals more sex) and much of the woodland in the area had already been cleared. In approximately 3,630 AD construction began on a major earthwork now known as the Stonehenge Cursus which previous archaeologist once dismissed as: "just a Roman racetrack". Located 400 metres north of the existing megaliths, this seems to mark the start of the Stonehenge complex.
From skull evidence found at Belas Knap, a Neolithic long barrow 80 kilometres to the northeast, it may have been about this time that the very first 'Bell-Beaker" people arrived in the region having travelled from Iberia (Spain) and up the river Avon. The logic for this twofold. Firstly, the region appears to have benefited from sudden technological advances and secondly, construction takes on a distinctly circular form. Neolithic peoples are almost always associated with long-barrows and 'horse-head' shapes such as the Stonehenge Cursus. Beaker people built round-barrows and favoured circular developments such as Woodhenge and Stonehenge. (By the way this section of British history is still hotly disputed.)
| WHEN DID THEY BUILD STONEHENGE? |
Stonehenge itself seems to have been constructed in three phases.
Important: The timing of these phases is habitually re-estimated and as a result a variety of timelines are still being used. The dates below overlap but are based on the most recent research 2010 /2011.
First Phase: Selecting the Site (c. 3,100 - 3,000 BCE / 2950 - 2900 BC)
The first phase started around 3,100 BC and consisted of a circular ditch with an earthen bank on either side but predominantly on the inside. The area inside the inner embankment was a flattened disk approximately 100 - 110 metres in diameter. It had a sizeable gap or entrance facing northeast in which may have been two upright posts which would have been aligned with the ditch. Beyond these may have stood two further posts - the precursors to the larger Heel Stone and its partner. There was a further small gap in the ditch a few degrees west of exact south. Just within the central enclosure was a ring, 86.6 metres in diameter, made of 56 pits which was discovered by John Aubrey in 1666 (1662) and later named after him. Each pit was dug to a depth of 76cm and was 106cm in diameter. These may have been used to house wooden posts, probably the trunks of mature oak trees as a diameter of a meter indicates a fairly significant socket. However, a depth of only 76cm indicates that these posts could not have been very tall. This does actually make a certain amount of sense if they were anchor points rather than supports. (More about this later in our next section about Stonehenge.)
Second Phase: Timber Structures (c. 3000-2550 BCE / c. 2900-2400 BC)
Between 2900 BC and 2400BC it appears that the area was used for a variety buildings and numerous post holes have been discovered. It is likely that there was a timber structure at the centre of the site as well as a wooden gatehouse at the entrance gap. There is no visible sign of the second phase remaining. Poorly recorded early excavations have further hampered the ability of archaeologists to establish a clear picture of what exactly occurred during this period and whether or not it had a direct relationship to the original purpose of Phase One. Certainly the ditch was somewhat filled in both by natural sedimentation as well as human and animal bones. Studies show that 25 of the Aubrey holes were later used to bury human remains from cremations. Some of this material has also been located in the ditch.
Third Phase: (c. 2550-1600 BCE ) Sub-phase One ( Circa 2,550 - 2,600 / : Bluestone Arrive )
Mounting archaeological evidence now suggests that by around 2600 BC timber posts were being replaced by stones. Geologists have identified up to twenty different types including both dolerite and igneous rocks. Archaeologists broadly agree that up to 82 monoliths or menhirs were probable arranged in two concentric semicircles set into pits known as the Q and R holes. General consensus is that these marked the arrival of the bluestones. It appears that the site was realigned with the midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset which resulted in the entrance being rebuilt and the gap in the ditch widened. It was probably during this time that an entrance portal was assembled comprising two upright megaliths and a horizontal lintel. The Slaughter Stone is believed to be all that remains of this structure. Four station stones (Sentinels) were also erected in alignment with the maximum arc of the sun during sunrise and sunset. Two of these were surrounded by a ditch with the debris forming a central mound. These earthworks are often incorrectly called 'barrows' but, as they do not seem to have been used for burials, should more accurately be listed as mounds. With regard to the bluestones there is an ongoing debate about how they were brought to Stonehenge. The generally accepted theory is that they were brought from the Mynydd Preseli region in Wales by floating them on rafts wherever possible and then dragging them on rollers to the site. Given that each stone weighed about five tons each the raft used would have had to be the enormous if it was to provide enough buoyancy to carry this load. A more recent theory is that the stones were already on or near the site and had been brought there by glacial action during previous ice ages. These stones, geologically known as 'Erratics' would have stood out against the landscape and seemed both unusual and possibly magical to local beaker and Neolithic inhabitants.
AN INNER CIRCLE OF BLUESTONES
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Third Phase: (c. 2550-1600 BCE ) Sub-phase Two (2,600 - 2,400 BC: Bluestones Out - Sarsens In )
This is probably the most important phase in the construction of Stonehenge and it was during this time that the shape and layout that we can recognise today was first established. To achieve this the builders removed the existing structures with the exception of the station stones and the entrance portal. The ditch and embankment appears to have been repaired and geometric alignments were improved. Enormous new stones called Sarsens (extremely hard sandstone monoliths) were brought to the site - each weighing between 25 and 45 tons. These were erected in a circle approximately 30 metres (100 ft) in diameter and located in the centre of site. Slightly curved Lintel-Stones were used to join pairs of uprights using advanced mortise and tenon joints. The result was an unbroken 'wheel rim" resting on top of the structure. Measurement of the Sarsen uprights (orthostats) show that they are slightly wider at the top which would create the illusion of making them seem straighter. Allowing for natural weathering, the surfaces of the stones facing the centre of the structure are better finished. The outer ring required sixty stones but there is some debate as to whether the circle was ever fully completed.
Even closer to the centre the builders erected a further 10 stones, known as Trilithons, into a horseshoe-shape with the open side facing the entrance and avenue. Each pair of stones was in linear alignment on top of which rested a single Lintel stone.
Third Phase: (c. 2550-1600 BCE ) Sub-phase Three (2,400 - 2,280 BC: Bluestones Make Comeback )
A simplified point-of-view is that from this moment onwards the development of Stonehenge largely involves the Bluestones and where to put them. One can almost imagine the builders looking at their completed Sarsen Circle, Horseshoe and Altar and feeling a tremendous sense of pride and awe at their achievement. Then one of them says: "Pity about that huge pile of bluestones just over there in the field. Spoils the view. Also, I'm not sure it's a good idea to have all these workers hanging about with time on their hands. I know let's put them up again as a circle ... over there inside the really cool big one. You know . .. where the sun doesn't shine ... as much."
Whatever their actual motivation, the Bluestones (and this theory is a s good as any) were cleaned up and installed as a circle between the outer ring of Sarsens and the inner Horseshoe.
Third Phase: (c. 2550-1600 BCE ) Sub-phase Four (2280 BC to 1930 BC: Rearranging the Bluestones)
It seems that during this phase the builders of Stonehenge weren't completely happy with the new Bluestone circle. Perhaps new measurements (cosmic or otherwise) dictated a rearrangement or perhaps It was a High Priestess in charge who just wanted to move the furniture around a bit. The point is that nobody knows why the bluestone circle was redefined and why a new bluestone oval was established within the Sarsen Horseshoe. What we do know is that it was shoddy work by comparison to earlier efforts - almost as if the workers were getting really fed-up with moving all these damn rocks around ... again. This point marks the end of major construction work and further changes to the site tended to be the removal of stones rather than the addition of new ones.
There have been many theories as to why commitment to the site seems to have declined at this time. They range from tribal conflicts to sickness and mass depopulation. Some new-age thinkers even suggest that the aliens finally arrived and took away the faithful. The truth is probably far more cynical. Evidence suggests that the Beaker People were now dominating the population and those beakers weren't just for show ... they were probably for something new and very, very important. Alcohol! Now instead of humping around rocks all day and listening to some priest drone on about sun gods and the spirits of your ancestors you could empty a beaker or two and hey presto an instant religious experience.
Third Phase: (c. 2550-1600 BCE ) Sub-phase Five (1930 BC to 1600 BC: The Bluestone Horseshoe)
For about three hundred years Stonehenge was still in use although part of the central oval was removed to create a second horseshoe shape (perhaps to create a better view). There's no doubt that Stonehenge was still important but just nowhere near as important as it once was.
In many ways it resembles a business that's in trouble - still operating but less and less products on the shelves. There are countless theories as to why it went into decline but the simplest is that people just weren't interested anymore. Perhaps another religion was taking over or they were distracted by all those new ideas and technology arriving from Europe. You can just hear a teenage agrarian kid saying:
"Oh Dad ... Rock is so yesterday! Metal's where it's at."
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3D DIAGRAM OF STONEHENGE SHOWING THE NORTHEAST ALIGNMENT OF THE ENTRANCE AND THE HORSESHOE OPENING OF THE CENTRAL TRILITHONS
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Actually, this could be quite accurate as metal production and the godlike power of extracting it from rocks could have taken people in a whole new spiritual direction. The reality is that nobody really knows.
Later Years
The last known construction at Stonehenge was the creation of two circles made up of shallow circular pits. These are known as the Y and Z holes and were added around 1600 BC. Archaeologists don't believe they ever contained upright posts or stones. However, it is possible that they represent the start of a project that was never completed. If this is the case then they may have been the post holes for a timber structure that would have ultimately enclosed the monument.
A scroll trench was dug towards the Heelstone around the end of the 7th century BC The purpose of which is a mystery although there has been speculation that it was an attempt to find buried valuables.
A massive iron age hill fort, incorrectly named Vespasian's Camp, was constructed near to the Avon River sometime between 1,100 BC and 700 BC. Further works on this site indicated it was occupied up until 350 BC. It may well have been the occupants of this fort that excavated the scroll trench.
*1: English Heritage 2011
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